Final Stuff

Congratulations for making in through the entire semester and learning all you have. It's quite the accomplishment. The format of the final will be the same as the midterm -- you'll bring your own laptop/device on which to take it. The final is comprised of 66 slide questions including 1 extra credit question, 3 we-finds including one extra credit question, and 15 u-finds. There are a couple other opportunities for extra credit on the final your TAs will tell you about, so MAKE SURE YOU DO THEM.

Lots of people ask how we would suggest studying for the final:
1) Study by the organ rather than by systems (the way we taught it). For example, go to a duodenum slide or google a duodenum slide and name everything you can on there (Simple columnar epithelium with striated border, goblet cells (unicellular exocrine glands, secrete mucin proteoglycans), paneth cells (also unicellular exocrine glands, secrete antimicrobial enzymes), Brunner's Glands (CMBT and secrete bicarbonate), inner circular and outer longitudinal muscularis externa layers, made up of smooth muscle regularly arranged, Meisner's and Aurebach's plexus that regulate peristalsis...)
2) Look at as many slides as you can. For everything you're studying, google "pancreas histology" or whatever organ it may be. Practice finding landmarks in each organ so you can figure out where you are.
3) Layers are common questions, as you already know. Go over all the layers we've learned and make sure you can regurgitate those (retina, cornea, endochondral bone formation, developing tooth, etc...)

Here are some questions you can ask yourself in your studies:

What do neural crest cells turn into?

Where can you find ependymal cells?

Where can you find DCCTIRA?

Where can you find DECTIRA?

Where can you find skeletal muscle irregularly arranged?

Where can you find smooth muscle irregularly arranged?

What’s the anatomical name for the lining of all the blood vessles?

From what primary structure were the muscles of the GI tract derived?

Where can you find tonofibrils?

Where can you find a unipolar neuron?
Where are the two structures named after Purkinje?

Where can you find stereociliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium?

Do you know all the layers (skin, retina, cerebrum, cerebellum, developing tooth, endochondral bond formation…)?

Can you name all the derivatives of the 3 primary germ layers?
Can you name all the structures on the developing chick and what they develop into?

Do you know all the white blood cell information?

Do you know where all the hormones come from and how they interact with each other? 

And here also are some practice u-find questions from my review:

-Find and name a structure that does not have histology/epithelium

-Find and anatomically name a modified simple squamous cell

-Find and anatomically name a structure with simple cuboidal epithelium that is derived from the intermediate mesoderm

-Find and name the embryonic structure that is a precursor to cells that secrete testosterone

-Find and anatomically name a structure with simple cuboidal cells in the organ that secretes bile

-Find and name the cells that secrete a hormone that opposes the effects of PTH

-Find and anatomically name a CMA gland associated with unipolar neurons

-Find and histologically name the contractile tissue associated with Von Ebner’s Glands

-Find and name a structure associated with smooth muscle that regulates its peristalsis

-Find and name a cell that secretes LH, and name an organ LH acts upon

-Find and anatomically name a structure with DECTIRA

-Find and name a cell acted on by LH in the male reproductive tract

-Find and histologically name the cells that secrete dentin

-Find and anatomically name a structure that is histologically classified as “DCCTRA with elastic fibers”

-Find and histologically name cells, not within the GI tract, whose secretion increases the PH of the digestive tract

-Find and name the embryonic germ layer that is a precursor to cells that secrete cortisol

-Find and name the cells that secrete a hormone that lowers blood glucose levels

-Find and histologically name a gland that secretes sweat

-Find and name the muscle layers associated with stereociliated pseudostratified epithelium

-Find and name the embryonic structure from which the muscularis externa layers of the duodenum originate

-Find and a cell that lives 1-4 days in tissue

-Find and anatomically name the region where immature T and B cells are housed

-Find and name a layer we learned about wherein chondrocytes are hypertrophying 

Keep in mind that basically everything in your lab book is fair game for the final (**See a list at the bottom of this blog for things that are guaranteed not to be on the final**).



Here are some organs that look similar, to help you differentiate them:

Bronchus

Trachea

Trachea vs. Bronchus                                            
- remember that the trachea will have c-shaped cartilage rings while the bronchus will have cartilage that looks 'broken' - it will only have small pieces.

- also, the trachea has large subtracheal glands that are sandwiched between the cartilage and epithelium, but the bronchus does not.

- both have ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Epidermis

Esophagus

Vagina

Epidermis vs. Esophagus vs. Vagina
- all three of these have stratified squamous epithelium, so telling them apart can be tricky
- the epidermis is the only one of the three that will have it's darkest layer in the middle. Notice how in both the vagina and the esophagus, the darkest layer is the deepest layer. The stratum granulosum is the darkest layer of the epidermis and is located right in the middle of all the layers (remember 'can loud girls sing bass'!).
- the esophagus is unique because it is the only one of the three that has glands in the submucosa beneath the epithelium. If we ever show you the esophagus we will include the subesophageal glands with the epithelium.
- the vagina has two unique features: it is the only one of the three with glands in the epithelium itself, and it is the only one with cells that store large amounts of glycogen. Note the lighter staining and slight bulging of the more superficial cells - this is due to abundant glycogen storage.

Urethra

Ureter

Ureter vs. Urethra

- these two are extremely similar: they both have transitional epithelium and both perform almost the same function. The only difference is the shape of the lumen.
- the ureter has a Greek cross-shaped lumen; usually much smaller and less branched
- the urethra is larger and therefore has a larger lumen that tends to have more branches



Won't be on the final at all: 
-Ligament
-Arterioles 
-Venules
-Any of the pars in the pituitary gland
-G-cells
-Neck cells
-Larynx
-Seminal Vesicle
-Bladder

Won't be u-finds on the final: 
-Larger or terminal bronchioles
-Cornea
-Vaginal glands
-Penis things (corpus spongiosum/cavernosa)
-Demilumes
-Reticular fibers
-Fibrocartilage
-Reticulocytes
-Eosinophils, basophils, monocytes
-Megakaryocytes
-Lymphatic vessels
-Intrafusal fibers
-Sarcomeres or any component of them
-Layers of cerebrum (know them, but won't have to differentiate them on u-find)
-Herring bodies
-Sertoli cells

Repro/Urinary Stuff

Good job getting through all the material for the whole semester! Your brains are so full now -- I'm so proud.

 Looking through Repro/Urinary, there are a couple things on the blog this week I want to make sure you know. There are a lot of things, in a addition, that you've learned in the past that are free game for this quiz, so review them. That's everything you've learned within the reproductive/urinary systems (muscle layers of things like the oviduct, vas deferense, vagina, uterus... the epithelium you've learned like stereociliated pseudostratified columnar, simple columnar, transitional... glands and their secretions and histology, like the CMBTA gland that secretes proteolytic enzymes and citric acid... it's all fair game).


Testes:

-KNOW spermatogenesis and oogenesis (what each cell type looks like on your own slides). Check out the pics below for help with this.

Understanding where the cells are at in mitosis/meiosis might help you keep the cells straight, which is why this picture is on here. 

Note that the because of what's going on in mitosis/meiosis, the primary spermatocyte is always the biggest cell type in sperm maturation. Also, for this lab, we're saying spermatids and spermatozoa are both the dense, kind of longer than wide nuclei. The spermatids though, aren't pointing to the lumen, but the spermatozoa are. Because they have a mature flagellum which has to stick out into the lumen. 

Pretty straightforward. The manual does a good job differentiating the different follicle types. 

Look first for the primary spermatocytes - they're gonna be the largest cells (#3) - now can you see the spermatagonia (#2)?

Immature testis - notice how there are no spermatids or spermatazoa?

Remember that the Spermatagonia will always be touching/near that outer membrane of the seminiferous tubule.

And another testis slide - just for fun . . . .

. . . . notice how the Leydig cell is pretty round, with a nucleus and cytoplasm - remember: Ladies Dig Testosterone (gross haha). Leydig cells secrete testosterone in response to LH from the anterior pituitary.


One thing students sometimes get confused about is whether they're in the epididymus or the seminiferous tubules -- look at the lumens. The tubules in the epididymus will always have a uniform inner border, then a white space, then sperm. The seminiferous tubules in the testes won't have a uniform border, and either won't have any clear space in the lumen at all or very little one the very inside.

Seminiferous tubules on the bottom-ish, epididymus on the top-ish. 

Remember about the prostate - what does it secrete? What kind of exocrine cells does it have? What are those one things called (concretions)? What is the prostate histologically? (remember Come Men Be Tested Annually)

Way zoomed out prostate gland. The urethra is in the middle-ish... that kind of upside-down Y shaped space in there. 

Also remember about the oviduct? What kind of epithelium is in there, what are its muscle layers... etc. 

Oviduct (has inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth muscle layers, remember?)

Ovaries:

Remember - ANYTHING with more than 1 layer of granulosa cells around it but with  an  INCOMPLETE ANTRUM is a secondary follicle. There is a huge variety to what secondary follicles look like.

Primordial Follicle

At the time of birth all the surviving primary oocytes are surrounded by thin, single layers of so-called follicular epithelial cells. The primordial follicles always form the majority of the follicles in the ovary.

Primary follicle

Once a primordial follicle gets a little communication from FSH from the pituitary gland, it starts developing a layer of granulosa cells around it. Primary follicles have ONE layer of granulosa cells around them, as shown in the following slides:

Shows a nice primary follicle compared to a secondary follicle

This lovely primary follicle has one granulosa cell layer around it

Secondary follicle While several primordial follicles get the signal to differentiate into primary follicles, some of them don't get enough FSH to continue to make more granulosa cells and continue developing. Not all primary follicles will turn into secondary follicles. Those follicles that do receive enough of an FSH signal to continue developing will continue to mitotically divide their granulosa cells, resulting in increasing layers of them. Here's the very beginning of what a secondary follicle can look like:

Beginning stage of a secondary follicle

Secondary follicles are the most confusing because they can look so different. All the way from just having two layers of granulosa cells to having a not-quite-complete antrum is all considered secondary follicles for the purpose of this lab. A secondary follicle is anything from the slide above to the following slides:

This guy is a secondary follicle because it doesn't have a cumulus oophorus yet

This guy is very close to being a graafian follicle, but his antrum isn't complete -- it's not totally continuous because there are still granulosa cells in it

The top one here is a primary follicle, bottom right is a secondary follicle, and the bottom left is a secondary follicle that's starting to degenerate due to lack of sufficient FSH hormone

Graafian follicle

In a human ovary, only one follicle makes it to this point. A lot of your own slides are not human, however, so you may have more than one of these. These are the follicles that make it all the way to full maturity, and will be ovulated. Be sure to know all the components of this mature follicle.

Graafian follicle with a lovely cumulus oophorus and complete antrum

Hey where does fertilization occur? The uterus? NOPE, the oviduct. Just thought that merited a reminder...

Also don't forget to review the urinary stuff!

Stuff from this section that won't be u-finds:

-Muscle layers in the epididymis
-Muscle layers of the vas deferens. Know them, but you won't have to differentiate between them on your slide
-Muscle layers of the oviduct. Again know them and know how to find the muscle layers, but you won't have to differentiate between them.

-Seminal Vesicle

-Bladder

Stuff from this section that you won't need to know for this week (but will in the future):

N/A

Stuff from this section you don't need to know for lab:

-Pages 62 and 67 are helpful to know, but you won't be quizzed on them directly

-Seminal vesicle
-Bladder

Reproductive Review Sheet

Key: Know the anatomical and histological names (including modifications) for the following bolded structures; assume that you will be required to find the structures indicated by * on your own slides.

***This

list is not guaranteed to be exhaustive, and only includes terms from

this unit. While we will not focus on quiz information from previous

weeks, knowledge of previous material may be useful***

Focus

on reproductive histology, but keep in mind that this unit integrates

information from previous topics. Anything in the lab manual for this

unit is fair game.

Male Reproductive System

Testis

·    Epididymis*

·    Seminiferous tubules*

·    Tunica albuginea*

Seminiferous Tubules

Be able to differentiate between the different cell types in spermatogenesis. Note their characteristics.

·    Leydig cells*

·    Spermatagonia*

·    Primary spermatocyte*

·    Secondary spermatocyte*

·    Spermatid*

·    Spermatozoa

·    Sertoli cells

Epididymis

·    Epididymis epithelium*

·    Muscle layers*

Vas Deferens

·    Vas deferens epithelium*

·    Inner longitudinal muscle*

·    Middle circular muscle*

·    Outer longitudinal muscle*

Seminal Vesicle

·    Seminal vesicle glandular epithelium

·    Muscle wall

Prostate Gland

·    Urethra

·    Transition zone

·    Peripheral zone

Penis and Urethra

·    Corpora cavernosa*

·    Corpus spongiosum*

·    Urethral epithelium*

·    Medial septum*

·    Skin epithelium*

Female Reproductive System

Ovary

·    Primordial follicles*

·    Primary follicles*

·    Secondary follicles*

·    Mature (Graffian) follicle*

·    Granulosa layer*

·    Corona radiate*

·    Cumulus oophorus*

·    Ovum*

·    Theca layers*

·    Zona pellucida*

·    Antrum*

Oviduct

·    Oviduct epithelium*

·    Lamina propria*

·    Submucosa*

·    Muscle layers*

Uterus

·    Uterine epithelium*

·    Endometrium*

·    Stratum functionalis*

·    Stratum basalis*

·    Uterine glands*

·    Myometrium*

·    Perimetrium

Vagina

·    Vaginal epithelium*

·    Lamina propria*

Renal Review Terms

Kidney Cortex

·    PCT*

·    DCT*

·    Glomerulus*

·    Parietal layer of Bowman’s capsule*

·    Visceral layer of Bowman’s capsule*

·    Macula densa*

Kidney Medulla

·    Collecting duct*

·    Thick portion of loop of Henle*

·    Thin portion of loop of Henle*

·    Vasa recta capillaries*

Ureter

·    Ureter epithelium*

·    Muscularis layers*

·        Inner longitudinal*

·               Outer circular*

Bladder

·    Bladder epithelium

·    Muscularis externa

·    Inner longitudinal

·         Middle circular

·        Outer longitudinal

Urethra

·    Urethra epithelium*